Cemeteries and groundwater : an examination of the potential contamination of groundwater by preservatives containing formaldehyde : report

CEMETERIES AND GROUNDWATER:
AN EXAMINATION
OF THE
POTENTIAL CONTAMINATION
OF GROUNDWATER
BY PRESERVATIVES
CONTAINING FORMALDEHYDE

FEBRUARY 1992

Environment |
Environnement |

| Ontario

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ISBN 0-7729-9199-5

CEMETERIES AND GROUNDWATER:
AN EXAMINATION OF THE POTENTIAL
CONTAMINATION OF GROUNDWATER BY

PRESERVATIVES CONTAINING FORMALDEHYDE

Report Prepared By:

G.Soo Chan, M.Scafe, S.Emami
Water Resources Branch
Ontario Ministry of the Environment

FEBRUARY 1992
Ge
Lo
RECYCLED PAPER
bu PAPER RECYCLE
Cette publication technique

n’est disponible qu’en anglais.

Copyright: Queen’s Printer for Ontario, 1992
This publication may be reproduced for non-commercial purposes
with appropriate attribution.

PIBS 1813
log 91-2302-231

INTRODUCTION

A study on the effect of burial preservatives on groundwater
quality was initiated in the summer of 1990, by the Drinking Water
Section of the Water Resources Branch, as a result of public
concern that this may be a significant source of groundwater
contamination.

The Water Resources Branch conducted a groundwater reconnaissance
sampling survey using existing wells at six sites. Analyses were
conducted for formaldehyde, nitrates and phosphates.
Bacteriological analyses were also done. The sites were
predominately in shallow sandy aquifers down gradient of
cemeteries.

LITERATURE SURVEY

Two extensive literature surveys were carried out for this project.
National and public libraries, both here and in the United States
of America were approached for information. Academia and
regulatory bodies were also contacted for information. No
literature on this subject could be obtained. It may be noted that
this investigation is the first of its kind in North America. This
initiative may serve as background material to others who may be
interested in this subject for further study.

The Ministry, following a lead, extended its survey to Holland, and
one publication entitled "Cemeteries as Sources of Contamination"
by Dr. F.W.J. Van Haaren was found. The findings of this document
have been incorporated into this report.

BURIAL PRACTICES SURVEY

A survey of standard burial practices indicated that in populated
areas in Ontario, the majority of bodies (90%) are embalmed and
then placed into a casket. Caskets range from soft to hard woods
to steel. Steel caskets are hermetically sealed. The casket may
be placed into a concrete vault and sealed with impermeable
caulking. According to MOE guidelines, the concrete vault is
placed into the ground at a minimum depth of 0.5 metres above the
highest water table. MOE guidelines also recommend that graves be
a minimum of 30 metres from a well or surface water source being
used for drinking purposes.

Embalming is the process of sanitizing and preserving human remains
to render them safe for handling while retaining the natural
appearance of the tissue for funeral viewing purposes. The

2

process retards putrefaction and lignification by "fixing" the skin
and underlying tissues.

The preservative (a formaldehyde solution), is injected at several
sites on the body. Two formulae of different concentrations are
commonly used. One is used for the circulatory system while the
other is injected into the organs located within the thoracic and
abdominal cavities displacing the natural body fluids.

DRINKING WATER STANDARDS FOR FORMALDEHYDE

Currently there is no drinking water standard for formaldehyde in
Canada. From work done in the U.S, the Emergency Response Group
Committee on Toxicology, National Academy of Sciences, has
recommended that EPA establish a drinking water standard of 110
micrograms/L (ppb), (Tomkins et al.).

FORMALDEHYDE

Formaldehyde, an animal carcinogen, causes squamous cell carcinomas
in nasal cavities of laboratory rats and male mice. Formaldehyde
can exert its mutagenic and carcinogenic effects by both damaging
DNA and inhibiting its repair (Graftstrom et al.). Neither the U.S
nor Canada have established a regulatory standard for formaldehyde
in drinking water.

Formaldehyde is produced and sold as water solutions containing
variable amounts of methanol. These solutions are complex
equilibrium mixtures of methylene glycol, poly (oxymethylene
glycols) and hemiformals of these glycols. Formaldehyde is noted
for its reactivity and versatility as an intermediate chemical.
It is also an active reducing agent. In the presence of an alkali,
hydrogen peroxide oxidizes formaldehyde to formic acid. When
reacting with metal oxide catalysts, it reduces very easily to
methanol. The chemical is oxidized to formic acid and or carbon
dioxide and water. It may be noted that analyses involving the
addition of chlorine in the processing of samples will result in
the reduction of formaldehyde to form carbon dioxide and water.
Water wells are commonly disinfected by the addition of chlorine
based chemicals.

FORMALDEHYDE AS A PRESERVATIVE

Three different indices of formaldehyde preservative exist:

Low < 20%
Medium 20-29%
High >30%

One litre of a formaldehyde based preservative per 5.0 kilograms
of body weight is normally used in the embalming process. An
additive of 0.18 litres of 32 index in 9 litres of water gives a

3

solution of 2% formaldehyde, which is a standard concentration used
in embalming.

Formaldehyde is used in a number of other practices. It may be
interesting to note that formaldehyde is used also in agricultural
practises to destroy some fungi, in tanning practices, in the
manufacture of plastics and sometimes as a substitute process
chemical in the manufacture of combs and buttons (H. C Muldoon &
M. Blake, Systematic Organic Chemistry 1957, p.220).

LABORATORY ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE

Formaldehyde is readily quantified at micrograms/L levels in
drinking water. Reporting limits as low as 20 micrograms/L are
routinely achieved. Formaldehyde detection typically exceeds 90%
at 20-200 micrograms/L. The laboratory procedure is presented in
Appendix C.

SAMPLING

Samples were taken at existing domestic/irrigation wells at six
sites in Ontario. These sites were screened and selected to ensure
sampling integrity, relative to their construction. Selected wells
were located for the most part in sandy shallow aquifers down
gradient of cemeteries. Wells ranged in depth from 3 to 24 metres
(see Appendix A). Sites CMF-1, 3 and 4 are actually located within
the confines of the cemetery downgradient of the most filled part
of the cemetery, (burial time ranges from 100 to 8 years ago).
Separation distance from the potential source ranged between 500
and 2000 metres.

Samples were taken from cold water taps connected directly to
plumbing from the well. All taps were purged for a period of five
minutes before samples were taken.

Unfiltered, duplicate one litre samples were taken at each site.
One litre screw cap amber coloured bottles containing no
preservatives were used. To assure sample integrity, wells that
conformed to proper well construction criteria were selected for
sampling. Samples were shipped to the laboratory for analysis
within 6 hours from time of sampling where they were refrigerated
until analysis could be done (1-2 days). Samples were analyzed for
formaldehyde, nitrates and phosphates. Bacteriological analyses
were also done.

DISCUSSION

The investigators were particularly interested in the potential
contamination of groundwater resulting from the use of certain
chemicals used for the preservation of deceased human bodies. The
chemical formaldehyde is of particular interest because of its

4
&potential human carcinogenic effects.

In order to gain some insight into the decomposition process, the
investigators first attempted to theoretically predict the extent
to which organic matter and other properties derived from a buried
cadaver in the soil, could be broken down.

The human body has roughly the following composition (Van Haaren
F.W.J., 1951):

water = 64%
protein - 20%
fat - 10%
carbohydrates - 1%
mineral salts - 5%
The average weight of a corpse is assumed to be 65 kg. This

assumption is based on the average weight of adults, children
and emaciated corpses (from terminal illnesses).

65kg (total weight) - 6.60kg (fat) = 58.4kg
Based on a weight of 58.4kg, the average chemical loading per
body, (kg) is:

water = 37:38
protein - 21.66
fat - 5.84
carbohydrates - 0.58
mineral salts - 2.92

The decompositional product which may be of greatest environmental
concern is nitrogen (a derivative of the body's protein content).
This will be discussed in Part II of this discussion;
Decompositional Products.

Formaldehyde Loading

If one assumes that all corpses are preserved with formaldehyde and
that 50% of the chemical retains its chemical configuration, then
the following is a theoretical loading estimation:

a) Average body weight = 58.4 kg
b) Standard cadaver preservation = 1 litre 2% formaldehyde
solution / 5 kg body weight
- therefore 58.4 / 5 11.7 L formaldehyde / body
1237 L'xX 0.02 (24)
0.234 L of formaldehyde / body /2 (50%)
0.117 L of formaldehyde / body

Using a maximum density of 500 bodies per acre, one will arrive at

a loading of:
500 bodies / acre x 0.117 L
= 58.5 L formaldehyde / acre over a
period of 10 - 15 years
= 0.012 L formaldehyde / day

As an illustration, if the rechargeable volume of an aquifer is:

50,000 gpd (a small aquifer) = 227,3000 L/day
and

0.012 litres/day of formaldehyde is added daily,
then

the concentration of formaldehyde/litre =0.012/227,300

= 5.0 ng/L or 5ppt

A Ministry of the Environment hydrogeological study done for Blue
Springs Creek, (Hydrogeology and Groundwater Model of the Blue
Springs Creek IHD Representative Drainage Basin, Water Resources
Report #10, 1978, p.28 - 36), indicated that the groundwater
contribution to base flow measured 3.9 million Imperial gallons per
day, an illustration of the actual storage capacity of aquifers in
this area. Thus, the dilution capacity of the aquifer is actually
close to 8 - 10 times greater than indicated here. This would
result in a concentration for the above calculation of 0.5 ppt
formaldehyde.

Under these circumstances, it is obvious that if the chemical does
inadvertently get into the aquifer, the dilution factor would
render it a low priority source of contamination.

In confirmation, the results of the study revealed extremely low
levels of formaldehyde. One must note that a blank sample analysed
during the study, had a reading of 7.29 ppb formaldehyde,
indicating that samples may have a built in error factor of this
magnitude. As a result, the actual concentrations of formaldehyde
in the groundwater samples collected may be lower than those
reported in Appendix B.

It must also be remembered that formaldehyde is a breakdown product
of a number of chemicals and is produced from a number of human
activities. Results indicate that cemeteries are not a significant
contributing source of formaldehyde to groundwater.

Decompositional Products

The decompositional product which may be of greatest environmental
concern, is nitrogen (a derivative of the protein component
mentioned above) equalling 1.87 kg per corpse. The maximum loading
rate (using 500 bodies per acre), is assumed to be:

500 x 1.87 kg N
= 935 kg N / acre

Consider an aquifer with a rechargeable volume of 227,300 lpd

then the concentration would be: 935 / 227,300 L

= 0.0041 kg / L or 4113 mg / L
over a period of 10 - 15 years
0.90 mg N / L

One must remember that decomposition occurs gradually and thus
nitrogen is released at a very insignificant rate.

Also, the number of bodies actually buried in a cemetery during one
year varies considerably. It is unlikely that one block ina
cemetery will be filled in one year. Loading is also drastically
reduced in cemeteries using concrete vaults.

The established Drinking Water Standard for nitrate and nitrite
nitrogen stands at 10.0 mg/L and 1.0 mg/L respectively.

The results of analyses done for nitrates, nitrites and phosphates
indicate with the exception of one site, (the Woodhouse Cemetery
site - nitrate) only very low levels exist (<10 mg/L).

There is no drinking water standard set for Phosphorus/phosphates
as it is not considered a health or aesthetic hazard. Restrictive
levels are established only for discharge volumes to the Great
Lakes as phosphates are nutrients which, in high concentrations
stimulate algae blooms, (which use up available oxygen, and
consequently threaten aquatic life).

The results of six sites that were sampled in this study, are
presented in Appendix B.

CONCLUSIONS

The analysis of groundwater samples collected at wells located
downgradient of six cemeteries sites in Ontario, indicated that
cemeteries are not a significant source of groundwater
contamination by formaldehyde. In addition, the calculated loading
estimates for formaldehyde and nitrates being released from
cemeteries supports a low potential for groundwater contamination.

The concentration of nitrate exceeded the Ontario Drinking Water
Objective in groundwater samples collected at one cemetery site.
The sources of nitrates at this site were not investigated further,
and may be the result of nitrate loadings from other practices.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Graftstrom R.C., Fornace A. J. Jr., Autrup H., Lechner J.F. and
Harris C.C.Science-220, 1983, p 216-218.

Hem John D., Study and Interpretation of the Chemical
Characteristics of Natural Water. Geologic Survey Water
Supply paper 1473, U.S. Dept. of Interior, 1970, 2nd
Edition.

Stofen D. The Maximum Permissible Concentration in the U.S.S.R. For
Harmful Substances in Drinking Water. Toxicology 1, 1973
(187-195). North Holland, Amsterdam.

Tomkins B.A.,McMahon J., Caldwell W.M Liquid Chromatographic
Determination of Total Formaldehyde in Drinking Water.
Analytical Chemistry, vol 72, no.5, 1989.

Van Haaren Dr. F.W.J. Cemeteries As À Source of Water
Contamination. Moorman's Periodieke pers, Den Haag,
Zwarteweg 1. Aug2, 1951.

Hydrogeology and Groundwater Model of the Blue Springs Creek IHD
Representative Drainage Basin, Water Resources Report #10, 1978,
p.28 - 36

Guidelines for Reviewing Proposed Cemetery Sites (For Medical
Officers of Health). M.O.E., 1989.

Parameters Listing System (PALIS). MOE, February, 1991.

APPENDIX A - SITES

APPENDIX B - RESULTS

APPENDIX C - LAB PROCEDURE FOR THE TESTING OF FORMALDEHYDE
DIAGRAM 1 - SITE LOCATIONS

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APPENDIX C

LABORATORY PROCEDURE FOR THE TESTING OF FORMALDEHYDE IN
DRINKING WATER

Formaldehyde is readily quantified at micrograms/L levels in
drinking water. The analyte present in 1L water samples is
derivatized with 2,4 dinitrophenlyhydrazine (DNPH), in a 2M acid
medium and then extracted with chloroform. After the solvent is
exchanged for methanol, the product is separated and quantified
using reverse phase liquid chromatography with UV detection (365
nm). Reporting limits as low as 20 micrograms/L are routinely
achieved. Formaldehyde recovery typically exceeds 90% at 20-200
micrograms/L. The samples are accompanied by sets of blanks and
spikes specified by a quality assurance/quality control plan,
(Tomkins et Al. P.835 Analytical Chemistry vol 72, no.5, 1989).

To exactly 500 mL water samples, 40 mL of 2,4-DNPH solution (15g
DNPH crystalline solid Merck dissolved in 6 litres of distilled
water containing 2N HCl/the solution purified by extraction with
chloroform) was added, and the solution mixed thoroughly for 15
minutes. The solution was then extracted with 3x50 mL chloroform
and the chloroform extract washed with 2 N HCl (100mL) followed by
washing with distilled water (100mL). The extract was then
evaporated to dryness in a rotary evaporator at 35° C under reduced
pressure, and the residue dissolved in acetonitrile. The solution
after appropriate dilution was then analyzed by HPLC/UV using the
optimized chromatographic conditions. A reference formaldehyde-
DNPH derivative was used for calibration by peak area method using
retention times confirmatory technique.

QA/QC studies involved running one method blank (distilled water),
one spiked water sample (distilled water) and one duplicate for all
samples taken in this project.

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